BackgroundDual coding theory (DCT) was proposed in the field of educational psychology and was based on Cognitive Information Processing Theory. DCT is the assumption that information for memory is processed and eventually stored through the use of two inter linked systems and coding sets (Clark and Paivio, 1991). "These sets of codes include visual codes and verbal codes which can represent letters, numbers or words. According to DCT, presenting learners with both visual and verbal codes, which are functionally independent, has additive effects on their recall" (Moyer et al, 2008, p. 204). Virtual manipulatives are typically designed to do just this. The applets include verbal codes and visual codes that are presented in unison. Mayer and Anderson (1992) developed a Contiguity Principle that determines this method as one that increases the effectiveness of multimedia instruction. There are many benefits of using virtual manipulatives to learn or reinforce mathematical concepts. These benefits include having a never-ending supply of manipulatives available for student use, the ability to work with more than one model, receiving immediate feedback, quick clean up, higher levels of engagement, and little change is needed in lesson planning aside from the inclusion of technology (Bouck and Flanagan, 2010).
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